Constructivist Theory of Knowledge in the Curriculum

Constructivist Theory of Knowledge in the Curriculum 1. The Constructivist Theory of Knowledge This theory has emerged from psychological theories around human learning and knowledge acquisition. Within this theory, the main preposition is that people construct knowledge and infer meaning to concepts through experience. It is a theory which is principally credited to Jean Piaget, who used scientific data to prove that the theory was of some validity. In relation to education, constructivist theories have had a significant impact on pedagogy, even though constructivism is not a pedagogy in and of itself. Within constructivism, the idea is that people respond to new knowledge by internalising it and accommodating this knowledge into their existing internal schema, the personal constructs of meaning and understanding that are unique to them. This explains one of the key facets of constructivism as applied to knowledge acquisition, that learners learn individually, and their knowledge is individually constructed and, arguably, unique to them. Therefore, learning is derived from sensory input from which the learner constructs knowledge. This seems rather simplistic, but runs counter to a number of previous theories, particularly the long-standing belief that knowledge is universal, because instead the learner must engage with the world or their social context or environment in some way, in order to learn. In constructivism, theorists posit that learners learn as they learn, in that while they are learning knew knowledge they are learning on many levels, about more than just the facts they are acquiring[1]. For example, if the student is learning about different materials, such as wood, plastic and metal, they are learning about the nature of these substances, but also they are expanding their vocabulary, learning what these substances look and feel like, and, are also processing examples of how these materials are used, and why. Applying this knowledge to their social world allows them to test their new understandings and to see what elements of their environment are constructed out of these different materials. The construction of meaning is a mental process which is enhanced by physical activities[2], but cognitive engagement with learning is key. In constructivism, learners are central to the learning process, not the knowledge they are required to acquire. Learning is both context ual and social, and so in primary science, for example, collaborative activities and experiments engage learners socially as well as individually. Learners need time to learn, but they also need opportunities to review and revisit the new knowledge, as it becomes internalised and takes its place as a building block for further learning. Primary science teaching appears to fit very well with this approach to understanding learning, because it builds from initial concepts and exploratory activities into more complex activities. As time progresses, the curriculum is designed to revisit knowledge on several occasions, and to put that knowledge into practice. How far this works for primary science, however, may depend on a number of factors[3]. This does seem to be a very constructivist approach, and while it works well in primary science, this author wonders if there are other subjects which might not so easily suit constructivist explanations of learning. As a practical subject, science at all levels allows students to take more control of their learning experiences[4] and to engage fully with new knowledge[5]. However, this theory also acknowledges that learning requires a degree of motivation, and this may be the biggest challenge to any educator[6]. 2. Discuss the issue of progression in a child’s learning in the context of a critique of the materials and properties strand of the national curriculum and the associated QCA schemes of work. The notion of progression builds upon issues of constructivism by starting what appears to be a cascade of learning through directed activities. The guidance for the materials and properties strand of the curriculum, particularly espoused in the QCA schemes of work, seem to start with an initial encounter with key concepts, such as the nature of materials, through focused activities[7]. For example, children in reception to Year 1 might be asked to identify types of materials, such as glass, wood, metal, and discuss the ways in which these are used, such as, windows are usually made of glass, or doors are usually made of wood. This knowledge is then built on later on in their learning process by learning more in detail about the properties of these different types of materials, through new information, and testing that information to learn about the properties under investigation. For example, learning about stretchiness would allow students to understand both the concept and the kin ds of materials which display this property, whilst also acquiring the new knowledge of different terms and their application. So progression of learning requires the student to understand what a property is, and the kinds of words used to describe and to explore it. The learning process challenges the student to ask questions about different properties, and then, through these answers, to apply these concepts to other materials and their properties. Progression is thus based on the student engaging at all stages, and only once the student has grasped initial concepts can they move on to the testing of those concepts in more and more detail. However, the challenge of basing a curriculum and set schemes of work on this concept of progressive learning, in this case, is that all students do not learn at the same rates, and therefore the progression of the class may be limited to the speed of the slowest student rather than responding to individual learning. However, this approach also allows students to not only revisit knowledge but to simultaneously signpost their learning[8], which may help build confidence, self-esteem and self-efficacy. The continuous programme of study that is the National Curriculum aims to ensure progression from primary to secondary school, in particularly, is less marked and more straightforward, although this is not the case for many educators. However, in principle, within science, the curriculum allows students to acquire the fundamental understandings necessary to advance to more complex science and scientific investigation. 3. How does the recognition of concepts of evidence affect a teachers approach to progression and assessment of pupils understanding in Sc1? Concepts of evidence is a fundamental scientific principle in relation to the acquisition of any kind of real scientific knowledge and understanding. Every part of the progression from S1 requires that students can recognise and work with ‘evidence’ acquired from practical activities[9], such as information gathering, observation and recording of these observations, and experimentation[10]. Experimental and investigative work in this subject, at this level, requires students to engage in the following kinds of activities: planning investigations; deciding what to change, what to keep the same and what to measure; deciding whether a fair comparison was made; and using results to draw conclusions[11]. These require students to have internalised what constitutes ‘evidence’ in scientific studies. However, in science, cognition and learning, and in particular, reasoning, is characteristically different than in other subjects, because this reasoning is carried out using ‘evidence’. Learning to work scientifically relates to a rage of ‘concepts of evidence’, which might include the purpose of observation, and how to carry out observation for specific reasons, recognising what constitutes a scientific question that can practically be investigated through accepted scientific processes, the need to carry out multiple measurements, and the need to develop through these new skills in carrying out measurement processes, and different ways of recording data and presenting findings. It also involves understanding different kinds of experiments and the kinds of results that can be gained from these. However, these kinds of concepts must be learned from engaging in practical activities, and in relation to progression from Sc1, understanding the principles of scientific activities must be demonstrated through carrying out the activities and working through these to achieve specific goals. This runs somewhat counter to the notio n of individual learning, however. However, it is not enough that students can carry out the activity required, because they need to be able to see beyond establishing ‘facts’ and look for alternative explanations or interpretations to illustrate their ‘evidence’. Not only must they be able to frame their investigations in the right language, and choose the right kinds of questions[12], they also need to be able to learn how to make robust measurements, with support and input. What this demonstrates is that it is not enough for students to learn superficially how to do an experiment, and how to record results. For students to progress, they need to be able to discuss observations and inference, questions and areas of investigation, and the different ways to produce ‘evidence’ to explain relationships or causality. And the literature does show that even young children can develop these kinds of capabilities, if they are properly supported. Therefore, the modern approach to science education where knowledge acquisition appears to be fully constructivist, particularly in relation to testing of ideas and principles, appears well suited to students developing key scientific skills, which at the next stage of their education form the basis for deeper understanding and manipulation of more complex and challenging tests and variables. Yet it could also be argued that to teach almost by rote, by following the schemes of work set out by the QCA and DfES is also to stifle individuality in learning, because not all students will grasp these concepts at the same time, or even in the same ways. Science is about universal laws and the testing of theories[13], but in order to allow students to develop a true understanding of basic principles[14], perhaps it is time for educators themselves to reconsider what are their ‘concepts of evidence’ for readiness to progress to the next level. References Gibson, J. (1998). Any questions any answer? Primary Science Review, 51, 20-21. Gott, R. and Johnson, P. (1999) Science in schools: times to pause for thought? School Science Review81(295) 21 -28 Gunstone, R.F. and Mitchell, I.J. (2005) Metacognition and Conceptual Change Teaching Science for Understanding 133-163 Hollins, W. Whitby, V. (1998). Progression in Primary Science. Great Britain: David Fulton Publishers. Johnson, P. and Gott, R. (1996) Constructivism and Evidence from Childrens Ideas. Science Education 80(5); 561-577. Osborne, J. and Simon, S. (1996) Primary Science: Past and Future Directions Studies in Science Education 26 99-147 Paivi, T. (1999) Towards expert knowledge? A comparison between a constructivist and a traditional learning environment in the university International Journal of Educational Research31 (5) 357-442. QCA/DfES (2008) http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/science/sci3c/sci3cq2?view=get  Accesed 23-10-08 Reinhartz, J. Beach, D. M. (1997). Teaching and Learning in the Elementary School: Focus on Curriculum. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Shepardson, D. P. (1997). Butterflies and beetles: first graders ways of seeing and talking about insect life cycles. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 34(9) 876-889. So, W. M. W. Cheng, M. H. M. (2001). To facilitate the development of multiple intelligences among primary students through science projects. Asia-Pacific Forum on Science Learning and Teaching, 2(1), Article 4. Available at: http://www.ied.edu.hk/apfslt/v2_issue1/sow/. Accessed 23-10-08. Watts, M., Barber, B., Alsop, S. (1997). Childrens questions in the classroom, Primary Science Review, 49, 6-8. White, R. and Gunstone, R. (1992). Probing Understanding. London: Falmer Press. 1 Footnotes [1] Paivi, T. (1999) [2] Shepardson, D. P. (1997). [3] Gott, R. and Johnson, P. (1999) [4] Gibson, J. (1998). p 20. [5] White, R. and Gunstone, R. (1992). [6] Reinhartz, J. Beach, D. M. (1997). [7]QCA/DfES (2008) [8] Gunstone, R.F. and Mitchell, I.J. (2005) [9] Hollins, W. Whitby, V. (1998) [10] So, W. M. W. Cheng, M. H. M. (2001). [11] QCA/DfES (ibid). [12] Watts, M., Barber, B., Alsop, S. (1997). [13] Osborne, J. and Simon, S. (1996) [14] Johnson, P. and Gott, R. (1996)

Is Chocolate Physiologically or Psychologically Addictive? Essay

Is Chocolate Physiologically or Psychologically Addictive? Chocolate is made from the seeds of the tropical tree, Theobroma cacao. Theobroma is the Greek term for 'food of the gods.' In Aztec society chocolate was a food of the gods, reserved for priests, warriors and nobility. The Aztecs used cacao beans to make a hot, frothy and bitter beverage called chocolatl. Chocolatl was a sacred concoction that was associated with fertility and wisdom. It was also thought to have stimulating and restorative properties. The bitter drink was first introduced to Europe in 1528. However, it was not until 1876 that milk, cocoa powder and cocoa butter were combined to form what we now know as chocolate (1). Today, production and consumption of chocolate is a global affair. People crave chocolate more than any other food. In the United States, the typical person eats 11.5 pounds of chocolate annually (2). What makes chocolate the food that is craved more often than any other food? Yes, chocolate tastes good, has a beautiful texture and melts in your mouth, but there must be more to chocolate than what meets the lips. In fact, chocolate is made up of chemicals associated with mood, emotion and addiction. Many people eat chocolate as a comfort food when they are depressed or stressed. The question is, do people crave chocolate because their bodies and brains are addicted to the chemicals in it or do people crave chocolate because they have a psychological attachment to it? Substances found in chocolate, such as phenylethylamine, theobromine, anandamide and tryptophan trigger mood enhancing chemicals and neurotransmitters to be released in the brain. Phenylethylamine is a chemical found in the body that is similar to amphetamine. It he... ...es 1)CHOCOLATE, on the Chocolate web site http://www.chocolate.org/ 2)Prescription-strength chocolate, on the Science News Online-Food for Thought web site http://www.science.org/sn_arch/10_12_96/food.htm 3)Chocolate and Anxiety, on the About the Human Internet web site http://panicdisorder.about.com/cs/shfitness/a/chocolate.htm 4)Theobromine: Chocolate's Caffeine Cousin, on the About the Human Internet web site http://chemistry.about.com/library/weekly/?once=true& 5)Chocolate "addiction" A Fiction?, on the Personal MC web site http://www.personalmd.com/news/a1998121611.shtml 6)Health and Happiness-does chocolate have it all wrapped up?, on the IFIS Hot Topic web site http://www.ifis.co.uk/index.html 7)Chocolate: A heart-healthy confection?, on the CNN web site http://archives.cnn.com/2000/HEALTH/diet.fitness/02/02/chocolate.wmd/

The new graduate

The new graduate nurses (NGN) are faced with various issues and challenges especially in their first year of nursing practice. The period of transition from a student to a graduate nurse is a demanding period that is filled with new experiences and there are several concerns and factors that can affect the transition process. The research into the issues has recommended some strategies that can be utilised to ease the transition process from being a student to a professional practicing nurse.Exhaustion, reality shock and time management are some of the actors and issues that the new graduate might encounter during their first year in their career. There are several recommended programs, which have been developed to address the issues that influence the transition period such as mentoring, support networks and time management planners. This essay will discuss in detail the range of issues, as well as the strategies and resources to facilitate the adjustment to the new role of a new re gistered nurse. Romyn et al. 2009) states some factors that influence the transition period from a student to a graduate nurse and how quickly newly graduate nurses are able to emonstrate mastery of their new role including personal qualities of the individual registered nurse such as age, previous work experience, maturity and aspirations. It was found that students who have worked as nursing assistants seemed to do better in their role as they had early hands-on experience. Other factors include the quality of educational preparation received during their pre-registration nursing program and the period of clinical experiences.Also, the duration and quality of transition programs for new graduates which is provided by institutions of employment, the ttitudes and behavior of the more experienced nurses in employing institutions as well as the demands been placed on the registered nurse in clinical situations (Chang & Daly, 2012). Fink, Krugman, Casey and Goode (2008) found that the transition of graduate nurses from a student into a professional practice setting is a concern, which is long- standing and widely recognised as a period of stress, reality shock and role adjustment.This is often due to the fact the students are been observed by a nurse when performing clinical tasks. Once the student graduates, they experience reality shock, when they try to adjust to their new role. Reality shock is a term used to describe a gap between what the students are taught to expect, and what is actually experienced during their early stages of work and often the shock occurs when the new graduate nurses discover it difficult to integrate the knowledge obtained in the university into their daily protessional practice.Moreover they discover there is a theory- practice gap as the theory they have been taught in lectures differs to the theory required in a clinical setting (Vieira da Silva et al. , 2010). Duchscher (2008) states that the discrepancies between what graduates understand s nursing from the real world of delivery of health care service compared to their education leaves the new nursing graduates with a sense of groundlessness.The nursing environment moves the new graduates away from the nursing practice adopted in their educational process towards a more productive, efficient and achievement-oriented context that places importance on institutionally imposed social goals which leads to role ambiguity and internal conflict. Duclos-Miller (2011) identified that role stress, role overload and role ambiguity all contribute to transition issues. Role stress is the incongruence between perceived xpectations, role and achievements, which occurs due to the status change from a student to graduate nurse.Furthermore, difficulty experienced from the challenges of the new role, such as lack of consistent and clear information about the behavior expected from them, lack of clearly specified responsibilities, lack of confidence, as well as coping with th e beginning level of competence as a registered nurse (Duclos- Miller, 2011). Role ambiguity is the lack of information needed for role definition and behavior that is expected in their new role, which includes the psychological, social aspects of role performance.Whereas, role overload includes learning of new roles, difficulty with time management and prioritising task. Also other stressors include the feeling of not being competent, encountering new procedures and situations, fear of making mistakes due to increased workload and working with experienced staff nurses that are unwilling to assist (Duclos-Miller, 2011). West, Ahern, Byrnes and Kwanten (2007) indicate that the new graduate nurses may have not worked full-time in the past; given that graduate nurses begin their career with a full-time Job can lead to exhaustion.It was discovered that shift work leads to esynchronisation of physiologically determined circadian rhythms which has a major psychobiology effect and it is co mmonly perceived the effects of shift work contribute to graduate nurses attrition rate. The NGNs often have a high level of stress due to disturbed sleeping patterns, as they find to adaption to shift work or rotating work hours difficult. Eventually, it leads to feelings of lack of Job satisfaction, exhaustion and spending of less time with their friends and family, which can eventually could lead to burnout (West et al. 2007). Dyess and Sherman (2009) found that new graduate nurses expressed concerns bout their ability to delegate and supervise other nurses or unlicensed assistive personnel as they felt unprepared to deal with any type of conflict, they tend to avoid any type of situation rather than confront the situation, as they felt unequipped to explore to conflict professionally. Another issue encountered by the NGN is the ability to communicate witn physicians and other members ot the multidisciplinary team ot which interactions with physicians were a source of anxiety and stress.Moreover, the lack of professional confidence that new graduate may feel can be heightened, when nother professional expresses disgust or uses a gruff tone. This is a safety issue because a sense of insecurity can contribute to the NGN avoiding contact with the physician, unless a patient experiences an extreme physiological decline (Dyess & Sherman, 2009). Morrow (2009) states that most graduate nurses experience horizontal violence in their first year of practice, they felt undervalued and neglected by other nurses and experienced rude and humiliating verbal statements and unjust criticism.The most common form of horizontal violence was in form of psychological harassment, which ncludes intimidation, exclusion, and innuendos. The cumulative impact may lead to absenteeism and frustration that may lead to the consideration of leaving the nursing profession (Morrow, 2009). In order for the factors and issues that surround the transition from a student to a graduate nurse to b e addressed, certain strategies needs to be implemented that can ease the transition period.An Important strategy that can be implemented to assist the graduate nurses to assimilate into a professional working environment is a graduate program. It will aid to build the confidence of the new graduate nurse hrough the provision of support and mentorship during their period of adjustment, and assist the new nurse to assimilate into the hospital environment, think critically and problem solve which will allow the graduates to deal with obstacles encountered in patient care and prepare them for a lifelong learning and also help them in the integration of theory to practice (Davey & Vittrup, 2009).The creation of formal preceptor and mentorship is an effective strategy to facilitate a successful transition. A preceptor is an assigned role in which a capable employee assists with the development and orientation of the new graduate; they are usually esponsible for evaluation and supervising the work of the preceptee. However, a mentor actively supports the graduate nurse with personal and career development, personal support, counseling and acceptance. Also, they help the novice nurse to raise their confidence and recognise their limitations.In addition, mentors help novice nurses in setting realistic goals by recommending appropriate courses of action (Ellis & Hartley, 2012). NGN require resources and information that are designed to facilitate their adjustment in a clinical area, which will enable them to gain skills and knowledge to perform satisfactorily in their Job. Resources such as an orientation program involves the induction of a NGN to the organisational mission and vision statement, as well as an introduction to the procedures and policies related to nursing activities such as medication administration.An appropriate orientation and induction program will ensure that a NGN can safely plan and conduct patient care. In addition, with an appropriate orientati on program the NGN is aware of the overall culture of the hospital, which can make the NGN to teel accepted and part ot a team in a clinical environment, which can promote overall positive outcomes with workplace atisfaction of the NGN (Burgess & D' Hondt, 2007).Effective strategies that enhance the time management skills which is one of the above mentioned issue for new graduates are to arrive to work much earlier, avoiding distractors such as focusing on issues of co-workers, assess patients to note if any extra supplies will be needed to carry out clinical procedures, keeping shift record on track and to chart during the shift and not at the end of the shift and prioritise task to be performed (Booth, 2011).However, to prioritise task the novice nurse needs to learn how to delegate. First, to enhance the skill the nurse should consider how others have delegated to them, consider their body language when delegating by maintaining eye contact, being pleasant and leave any room for suggestions, but ensure they are not intimidated by writing a list of task and posting it at the nurses station, it leaves little room for a misunderstanding (Cherry ; Jacob, 2008).

Types of Crystals Shapes and Structures

Theres more than one way to categorize a crystal. The two most common methods are to group them according to their crystalline structure and to group them according to their chemical/physical properties. Crystals Grouped by Lattices (Shape) There are seven crystal lattice systems.   Cubic or Isometric: These are not always cube-shaped. Youll also find octahedrons (eight faces) and dodecahedrons (10 faces).Tetragonal: Similar to cubic crystals, but longer along one axis than the other, these crystals forming double pyramids and prisms.Orthorhombic: Like tetragonal crystals except not square in cross-section (when viewing the crystal on end), these crystals form rhombic prisms or dipyramids (two pyramids stuck together).Hexagonal:  When you look at the crystal on end, the cross-section is a six-sided prism or hexagon.Trigonal: These crystals  possess a single 3-fold axis of rotation instead of the 6-fold axis of the hexagonal division.Triclinic:  These crystals are not usually symmetrical from one side to the other, which can lead to some fairly strange shapes.Monoclinic: Like skewed tetragonal crystals, these crystals often form prisms and double pyramids. This is a very simplified view of crystal structures. In addition, the lattices can be primitive (only one lattice point per unit cell) or non-primitive (more than one lattice point per unit cell). Combining the 7 crystal systems with the 2 lattice types yields the 14 Bravais Lattices (named after Auguste Bravais, who worked out lattice structures in 1850). Crystals Grouped by Properties There are four main categories of crystals, as grouped by their chemical and physical properties. Covalent Crystals:  A covalent crystal has true  covalent bonds between all of the atoms in the crystal. You can think of a covalent crystal as one big molecule. Many covalent crystals have extremely high melting points. Examples of covalent crystals include diamond and zinc sulfide crystals.Metallic Crystals:  Individual metal atoms of metallic crystals sit on lattice sites. This leaves the outer electrons of these atoms free to float around the lattice. Metallic crystals tend to be very dense and have high melting points.Ionic Crystals:  The atoms of ionic crystals are held together by  electrostatic forces (ionic bonds). Ionic crystals are hard and have relatively high melting points. Table salt (NaCl) is an example of this type of crystal.Molecular Crystals:  These crystals contain recognizable molecules within their structures. A molecular crystal is held together by non-covalent interactions, like van der Waals forces or  hydrogen bonding. Molecular crystals tend to be soft with relatively low melting points. Rock candy, the crystalline form of table sugar or sucrose, is an example of a molecular crystal. Crystals may also be classified as piezoelectric or ferroelectric. Piezoelectric crystals develop dielectric polarization upon exposure to an electric field. Ferroelectric crystals become permanently polarized upon exposure of a sufficiently large electric field, much like ferromagnetic materials in a magnetic field. As with the lattice classification system, this system isnt completely cut-and-dried. Sometimes its hard to categorize crystals as belonging to one class as opposed to another. However, these broad groupings will provide you with some understanding of structures. Sources Pauling, Linus (1929). The principles determining the structure of complex ionic crystals. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 51 (4): 1010–1026. doi:10.1021/ja01379a006Petrenko, V. F.; Whitworth, R. W. (1999). Physics of Ice. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198518945.West, Anthony R. (1999). Basic Solid State Chemistry (2nd ed.). Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-98756-7.